Clay sediments derived from fluvial activity in and around Ladon basin, Mars
Introduction
The informally named Ladon basin and surrounding region in Margaritifer Terra host exceptionally numerous, well-preserved fluvial landforms and basin stratigraphy, which includes clay-bearing (containing phyllosilicates and associated altered components) deposits (Milliken and Bish, 2010). Some of the best-developed exposed fluvial landforms and basin stratigraphy on Mars are found within Margaritifer Terra (e.g., Grant, 2000; Grant and Parker, 2002), making it an ideal region to test local and regional source-to-sink pathways of sediments deposited by multiple processes under changing environmental conditions over time. Ladon basin (Fig. 1) is a large multi-ringed impact basin (centered near 17.8°S, 330.4°E) that is partly overprinted by the slightly younger Holden multi-ringed basin to the southwest (centered near 26.0°S, 325.8°E) (Schultz et al., 1982; Grant, 1987). Both the Ladon and Holden basin impacts formed prior to ~3.7–3.9 Ga (Irwin III and Grant, 2013) and are perhaps as old as 4.17 Ga when the martian dynamo was still active (Lillis et al., 2013). Both Ladon and Holden basins lie along the segmented Uzboi, Ladon, and Morava (ULM) mesoscale outflow system, which formed during the Late Noachian through Early Hesperian by flooding sourced from the Argyre basin (Grant and Parker, 2002; Irwin III and Grant, 2009; Irwin III and Grant, 2013). The present topographic expression of Ladon basin is ringed by relief/mountains (e.g., Schultz et al., 1982) that have shed sediments via a well-developed radial centripetal network of valleys (e.g., Arda Valles).
Incision of Ladon Valles likely occurred during multiple large discharge events (Boothroyd, 1983; Grant and Parker, 2002; Irwin III and Grant, 2013) from filling and overflowing of Holden basin. The discharges from Holden basin were so large that the pre-valley topography could not initially confine the flow(s) into a single channel. The hanging side channels and the main stem suggest that multiple overflow points remained active until the central one was incised deeply enough to confine the entire flow. These observations are consistent with at least five distinct terraces along Ladon Valles (Boothroyd, 1983; Grant, 1987; Grant and Parker, 2002; Parker and Pieri, 1985). Discharge estimates during incision of the ULM system are somewhat uncertain, but the elevation of terraces along Ladon Valles, combined with channel cross section dimensions and gradients, suggest discharge rates between 150,000 m3/s and 450,000 m3/s relatively late in the flood when the flow was confined to a single channel (Grant and Parker, 2002). If these estimates are accurate, significant flows are associated with the formation of the ULM mesoscale outflow system and evolution of Ladon basin. Fluvial valley network systems formed during the Late Noachian to Early Hesperian and dissected much of the highlands in the Ladon region as water flowed downslope into Ladon basin, producing Arda Valles and other valley systems in the highlands (Irwin III and Grant, 2013; Weitz et al., 2022). The lack of fluvial deposits at the mouth of Arda Valles and on the floor of Ladon basin where these valleys terminate (Weitz et al., 2022) indicates either that the sediments were buried by younger basin units, removed by later erosion, or thinly distributed across the Ladon basin floor.
Within Ladon Valles and Ladon basin, extensive light-toned (where “light-toned” is defined with respect to other features in the images rather than due to absolute albedo) layered deposits containing phyllosilicate signatures have been identified (Milliken and Bish, 2010; Weitz and Bishop, 2012; Weitz et al., 2013). Other nearby phyllosilicate-bearing layered outcrops to the south of Ladon with broadly similar morphology occur in Holden and Eberswalde craters (Pondrelli et al., 2005, Pondrelli et al., 2008; Lewis and Aharonson, 2006; Grant et al., 2008; Milliken and Bish, 2010; Rice et al., 2011). Individual beds in the phyllosilicate-bearing deposits of Ladon, Holden, and Eberswalde are often less than a meter thick, can be traced for hundreds of meters, and do not appear to truncate one another (Grant et al., 2008). The deposits are mostly confined to low elevations, do not drape exterior surfaces, and there are no remnants occurring at higher elevations, thereby favoring low-energy alluvial or lacustrine deposits rather than airfall materials like volcanic ash (Malin and Edgett, 2003; Grant et al., 2008; Irwin III and Grant, 2013). The clays within Ladon Valles and Ladon basin could be associated with laterally extensive phyllosilicate-bearing terrains identified to the north in Margaritifer Terra (Seelos et al., 2016), Xanthe Terra and in the walls and plains surrounding Valles Marineris (Le Deit et al., 2012), and northwest Noachis Terra to the south (Buczkowski et al., 2010). Additional clays found in Margaritifer Terra by Thomas et al. (2017) suggest that some of these aqueous alteration products could have formed by fluids released in fractures, thereby providing potentially habitable environments. Because the phyllosilicate signatures at Ladon Valles are associated with finely layered sedimentary deposits, aqueous conditions during deposition and (or) in the source regions prior to erosion and transport may have been favorable for past habitability.
In this study, we analyzed data from several different orbital instruments acquired of Ladon basin, northern Ladon Valles, and the western highlands of Ladon basin to search for and characterize light-toned layered deposits containing phyllosilicate spectral signatures that could indicate sedimentary materials representative of habitable environments within this region of Margaritifer Terra. The morphology, mineralogy, and stratigraphy of the light-toned phyllosilicate-bearing deposits were used to decipher how the deposits may have formed, which is critical to understanding the aqueous and climatic history of the Margaritifer Terra region. We first discuss the deposits observed in Ladon Valles and Ladon basin, followed by smaller deposits identified within the southwestern highlands of Ladon basin. A sequence and timing of events within the study region is later described that postulates how the phyllosilicate-bearing deposits in each location most likely formed.
Section snippets
Data products
Orbital data collected by the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), Mars Odyssey (ODY), Mars Express (MEX), and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) spacecraft were analyzed in this study. Data from the MGS Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA, see Zuber et al., 1992) and Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS, see Christensen et al., 2004) were combined with newer views at higher spatial and spectral resolution provided by the Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) (Jaumann et al.,
Morphology and stratigraphy
The light-toned layered clay-bearing deposits extend from northern Ladon Valles into southern Ladon basin, covering more than 200 km in areal extent (Fig. 1b). The continuous deposit in Ladon Valles is concentrated on the eastern side, but smaller outliers are also visible along the western side (Fig. 2). The best exposures of layering occur along the sloping edge of the deposit where an overlying dark mantle obscures the flat upper surfaces. The deposit was laid down on the relatively smooth,
Discussion
This study determined that the light-toned layered deposits found within Ladon Valles, Ladon basin, and in the highlands adjacent to southwestern Ladon basin contain primarily Mg-smectites, with Fe/Mg-smectites and ferrihydrite in some areas. The light-toned layered deposits in the highlands occur either within valleys or small basins that were fed by valleys. These highland geologic settings are probably similar as they all occur within the same geologic unit (e.g., Terra unit mapped by Irwin
Conclusions
Phyllosilicates occur within light-toned layered deposits found in the southwestern highlands of Ladon basin, southern Ladon basin, and northern Ladon Valles. The sediments within these deposits were derived from erosion of the clay-bearing Noachian highlands unit upstream and were transported by valleys and channels that later deposited the sediments downstream. In the highlands, these valley systems deposited the clay assemblages within small basins or blocked valley systems along the
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded from MDAP grant 80NSSC17K0505 (CW and JB) and PGG grant NNX13AM81G (CW, JG, SP, RI). We would like to thank Melissa Rice and an anonymous reviewer for their very helpful comments that improved the quality of this manuscript. All HiRISE camera images used in this study are publicly available at https://hirise-pds.lpl.arizona.edu/PDS/. All CRISM images are available at this website: http://crism-map.jhuapl.edu/. All CTX images are available at this website: //viewer.mars.asu.edu/viewer/ctx#T=0
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